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Book 0 · Ground floorBook 0
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Obesity Expertise · Book 0

Ground floor

Numbers, units, change, uncertainty, the body's chemistry, and reading evidence

Dr. Harsh Maheshwari · Version 1.2 · updated 24 September 2026 · CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

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Why this book

Every other book in this series stands on this one. It teaches, once, the ground floor the other 195 books assume: numbers you can trust, units and dimensions, relationships and change, uncertainty, the chemistry of a body, and how to read evidence. It assumes you can read English and use a calculator. It assumes nothing else: no medicine, no biology, no remembered mathematics.

How to read it

Read it in order. Each section assumes everything before it and nothing after it. If a section looks easy, read it anyway and read it quickly: it is here because something later needs it.

Part A · Numbers you can trust

A1 Counting, place value, and what a calculator is actually doing

A2 Fractions

A3 Decimals, rounding, and significant figures

A4 Percentages, and the percentage of a percentage

A5 Ratios, rates and proportions

A6 Powers, roots and scientific notation

A7 Logarithms — what they are for before how they work

A8 Orders of magnitude and the back-of-envelope sanity check

References · Part A 12
  1. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 1, Whole Numbers. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  2. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 3, Integers, §3.1 Introduction to Integers and §3.4 Multiply and Divide Integers. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22).
  3. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 2, §2.1 Use the Language of Algebra, Simplify Expressions Using the Order of Operations. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22).
  4. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  5. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 4, Fractions. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  6. Government of India. The National Food Security Act, 2013. Act 20 of 2013. figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/496105 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  7. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 5, Decimals. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  8. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 6, Percents. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  9. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 5, Decimals, sections on ratios and rates. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  10. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 10, Polynomials, integer exponents and scientific notation. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  11. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 6, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  12. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 10, Polynomials, scientific notation. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.

An entry marked outstanding has not yet been checked against the source itself. Nothing in these sections rests on one: the reasoning is a derivation you can check with a calculator, and the entry records an anchor still to be supplied.

Part B · Units and dimensions

B1 What a unit is, and the SI base and derived units

B2 Converting units as multiplication by one

B3 Dimensional analysis as an error check

B4 Energy units: joule, kilojoule, calorie, kilocalorie

B5 Concentration units: mg/dL, mmol/L, and converting between them

B6 Body-size units: kg, m, cm and kg/m2

References · Part B 28
  1. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. SI definition, opening statement on how the units are defined. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  2. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. SI definition, the list of seven defining constants. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  3. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. SI definition, the relations between the derived units and the base units. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  4. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. closing paragraph, the list naming the seven base units. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  5. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. closing paragraph, the sentence on the continuing role of the base units. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  6. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. closing paragraph, the sentence naming the vote to revise the SI. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  7. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. “For more information”, the line naming the instrument that defines the SI. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  8. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. figures quoted in the text. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  9. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 4, Fractions, on equivalent fractions and multiplying by a fraction equal to one. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  10. Government of India. The National Food Security Act, 2013. Act 20 of 2013. figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/496105 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  11. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 5, Decimals, sections on ratios and rates. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  12. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The International System of Units (SI). 2019. SI definition, the paragraph relating the joule to the base units. BIPM. https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units (accessed 2026-09-22).
  13. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication 811, Footnotes. Page updated 18 August 2025. Carries the exact definitions of the thermochemical and International Table calorie. Footnotes, the paragraph fixing the thermochemical calorie. NIST. https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-publication-811/nist-guide-si-footnotes (accessed 2026-09-22).
  14. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication 811, Footnotes. Page updated 18 August 2025. Carries the exact definitions of the thermochemical and International Table calorie. Footnotes, the paragraph fixing the International Table calorie. NIST. https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-publication-811/nist-guide-si-footnotes (accessed 2026-09-22).
  15. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication 811, Footnotes. Page updated 18 August 2025. Carries the exact definitions of the thermochemical and International Table calorie. Footnotes, the paragraph on the kilocalorie as the food unit. NIST. https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-publication-811/nist-guide-si-footnotes (accessed 2026-09-22).
  16. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 5(3)(b), nutritional information to be given on the label. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  17. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 5(3)(b)(i), the energy line of the nutritional information panel. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  18. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 5(3)(b)(ii), the amounts the nutritional information panel must give. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  19. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 5(3)(c), foods exempted from mandatory nutritional labelling. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  20. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 8(1), exemptions from certain labelling requirements. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  21. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 5(3)(e)(i), Calculation of Energy, opening line. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  22. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. Regulation 5(3)(e)(i), the table of conversion factors. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  23. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication 811, Footnotes. Page updated 18 August 2025. Carries the exact definitions of the thermochemical and International Table calorie. figures quoted in the text. NIST. https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-publication-811/nist-guide-si-footnotes (accessed 2026-09-22).
  24. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary: D-Glucose (CID 5793) and Cholesterol (CID 5997). Molecular weight for D-glucose computed by PubChem 2.2, release 2025.09.15. D-Glucose, PubChem CID 5793, Molecular Weight field. PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5793 (accessed 2026-09-22).
  25. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary: D-Glucose (CID 5793) and Cholesterol (CID 5997). Molecular weight for D-glucose computed by PubChem 2.2, release 2025.09.15. D-Glucose, the provenance line printed under the molecular weight. PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5793 (accessed 2026-09-22).
  26. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary: D-Glucose (CID 5793) and Cholesterol (CID 5997). Molecular weight for D-glucose computed by PubChem 2.2, release 2025.09.15. Cholesterol, PubChem CID 5997, and the note recording what was not captured. PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5793 (accessed 2026-09-22).
  27. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary: D-Glucose (CID 5793) and Cholesterol (CID 5997). Molecular weight for D-glucose computed by PubChem 2.2, release 2025.09.15. figures quoted in the text. PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5793 (accessed 2026-09-22).
  28. Marecek, Lynn and Anthony-Smith, MaryAnne and Mathis, Andrea Honeycutt. Prealgebra 2e. 2020. ch. 10, Polynomials, integer exponents and scientific notation. https://openstax.org/books/prealgebra-2e/pages/1-introduction (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.

An entry marked outstanding has not yet been checked against the source itself. Nothing in these sections rests on one: the reasoning is a derivation you can check with a calculator, and the entry records an anchor still to be supplied.

Part C · Relationships and change

C1 Variables and algebra: what a letter stands for

C2 Rearranging an equation

C3 Two equations at once

C4 Functions: input, rule, output

C5 Graphs: axes, scale, slope and intercept

C6 Recognising shapes: linear, exponential, saturating

C7 Rate of change, average and instantaneous, without the machinery

C8 Accumulation, a running total, without the machinery

C9 Stocks and flows

References · Part C 11
  1. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 1, Prerequisites, and ch. 2, Equations and Inequalities - on algebraic expressions, variables and substitution. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  2. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. figures quoted in the text. FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  3. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 2, Equations and Inequalities - on solving linear equations in one variable and on solving a formula for a named variable. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  4. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 7, Systems of Equations and Inequalities - on systems of linear equations in two variables, and on solving them by substitution and by elimination. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  5. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 3, Functions. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  6. Government of India. The National Food Security Act, 2013. Act 20 of 2013. figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/496105 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  7. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 2, on the rectangular coordinate system and graphs, and ch. 4, Linear Functions. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  8. OpenStax. College Algebra 2e. Openly licensed. Carries logarithms, which Prealgebra does not - the reason Part A needs two anchors rather than one. ch. 4-6, Linear Functions through Exponential and Logarithmic Functions. https://openstax.org/books/college-algebra-2e (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  9. Strang, Gilbert and Herman, Edwin and OpenStax. Calculus Volume 1. 2016. ch. 3, Derivatives, and the sections on average and instantaneous rate of change. https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1 (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  10. Strang, Gilbert and Herman, Edwin and OpenStax. Calculus Volume 1. 2016. ch. 5, Integration, and the sections on approximating areas and the definite integral. https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1 (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.
  11. Strang, Gilbert and Herman, Edwin and OpenStax. Calculus Volume 1. 2016. ch. 5, Integration, and the sections on net change and accumulation over an interval. https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1 (accessed 2026-09-22). Outstanding — see the note below.

An entry marked outstanding has not yet been checked against the source itself. Nothing in these sections rests on one: the reasoning is a derivation you can check with a calculator, and the entry records an anchor still to be supplied.

Part D · Uncertainty

D1 What a probability is

D2 Counting outcomes; independence

D3 Conditional probability through the two-way table

D4 Variation: what differs and by how much

D5 Average and spread, and why the average is not the person

D6 Sampling: how a part can tell you about a whole

D7 Random error and systematic error as different things

References · Part D 49
  1. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (sample space). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  2. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (event). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  3. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  4. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (equally likely outcomes). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  5. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (counting equally likely outcomes). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  6. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (complement). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  7. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (probability scale). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  8. Kirk, Donna and OpenStax. Contemporary Mathematics. 2023. s. 7.7 What Are the Odds?. https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/7-7-what-are-the-odds (accessed 2026-09-23).
  9. Kirk, Donna and OpenStax. Contemporary Mathematics. 2023. s. 7.7 What Are the Odds? (Computing Odds). https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/7-7-what-are-the-odds (accessed 2026-09-23).
  10. Government of India. The National Food Security Act, 2013. Act 20 of 2013. s. 9 Coverage of population under Targeted Public Distribution System. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/496105 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  11. Government of India. The National Food Security Act, 2013. Act 20 of 2013. figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/496105 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  12. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.2 Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  13. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.2 Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events (mutually exclusive). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  14. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.2 Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events (assume dependent). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  15. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.3 Two Basic Rules of Probability (mutually exclusive means no overlap). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  16. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.1 Terminology (conditional probability). https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  17. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 3.4 Contingency Tables. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  18. Kiran, R and Harshitha and Bhargava, Madhavi. Mid-upper arm circumference and neck circumference to screen for overweight-obesity in young adults in South India. Open access, PMC9791811. Used in Book 0 Part D as real material to compute with, not as evidence about screening. figures quoted in the text. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9791811/ (accessed 2026-09-23).
  19. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling, Variation in Data. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  20. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.5 Measures of the Center of the Data, Calculating the Mean of Grouped Frequency Tables. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  21. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  22. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  23. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.5 Measures of the Center of the Data. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  24. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.3 Measures of the Location of the Data. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  25. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data, Calculating the Standard Deviation. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  26. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data, Formulas for the Sample Standard Deviation. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  27. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. s. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data, Explanation of the standard deviation calculation shown in the table. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  28. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms - Key Terms, on sampling. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  29. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms - Key Terms, on the statistic. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  30. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.1 Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms - Key Terms, on parameter and estimate. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  31. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, opening paragraph on random sampling. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  32. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, on convenience sampling. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  33. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, on variation between samples. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  34. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, note on large samples being biased. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  35. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, definition of a sampling bias. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  36. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, note on sample size against population size. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  37. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 7.1 The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means (Averages) - statement of the square-root law. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  38. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 2.7 Measures of the Spread of the Data - Sampling Variability of a Statistic, on the standard error of the mean. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  39. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. figures quoted in the text. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  40. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, on sampling and nonsampling error. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  41. Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan and OpenStax. Introductory Statistics 2e. 2023. 1.2 Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling - Sampling, the example of a nonsampling error. https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-statistics-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  42. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.13, measurement accuracy. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  43. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.14, measurement trueness. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  44. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.15, measurement precision. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  45. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.16, measurement error. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  46. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.17, systematic measurement error. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  47. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.18, measurement bias. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  48. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 2.19, random measurement error. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).
  49. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology. International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition, JCGM 200:2012. Online version with informative annotations. 2012. Entry 4.14, resolution. BIPM / JCGM. https://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/index.html (accessed 2026-09-23).

Part E · The physical and living world

E1 Atoms, molecules and bonds — enough to see where energy is stored

E2 Chemical energy, combustion, and the bomb calorimeter

E3 Conservation of energy, and a system with a boundary

E4 Heat and temperature; how heat moves

E5 The cell, membranes, proteins and receptors

E6 Metabolism as chemistry happening in a body

E7 Genes, DNA and inheritance in outline

E8 Organs and systems that matter for metabolism

References · Part E 158
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  2. Flowers, Paul and Theopold, Klaus and Langley, Richard and Robinson, William R. Chemistry 2e. 2019. § 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism, the same paragraph, on volume. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  3. Flowers, Paul and Theopold, Klaus and Langley, Richard and Robinson, William R. Chemistry 2e. 2019. § 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism, the sentence comparing the two diameters. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  4. Flowers, Paul and Theopold, Klaus and Langley, Richard and Robinson, William R. Chemistry 2e. 2019. § 2.4 Chemical Formulas, the structural-formula paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
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  88. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption, the paragraph on fibrous polysaccharides. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  89. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption, the carbohydrate absorption paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  90. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption, the paragraph on what reaches the large intestine. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  91. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism, the opening paragraph on glucose. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  92. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism, the paragraph on the route glucose takes. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  93. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.1 Overview of Metabolic Reactions, the paragraph on carbohydrates. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  94. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.1 Overview of Metabolic Reactions, the paragraph on proteins. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  95. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.3 Lipid Metabolism, the opening paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  96. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.3 Lipid Metabolism, the paragraph on absorbing fat. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  97. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.3 Lipid Metabolism, the paragraph on getting energy out of fat. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  98. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.3 Lipid Metabolism, the paragraph on building fat from excess carbohydrate. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  99. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.3 Lipid Metabolism, the closing paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  100. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.1 Overview of Metabolic Reactions, the paragraph on balance between the two directions. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  101. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.7 Nutrition and Diet, the paragraph on daily calorie needs. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  102. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing, the paragraph on nucleotides. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  103. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing, the paragraph on the double helix, the opening sentence. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  104. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing, the paragraph on the double helix, on base pairing. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  105. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing, the paragraph on the double helix, on complementary pairs. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  106. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing, the paragraph on the double helix, on the backbone. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  107. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the opening paragraph, first sentence. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  108. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the opening paragraph, on the order of genes. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  109. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the opening paragraph on chromosomes. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  110. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the opening paragraph on chromosomes, on gametes. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  111. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the paragraph defining alleles, opening clause. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  112. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the paragraph defining alleles. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  113. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the paragraph on phenotype and genotype. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  114. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 12.2 Characteristics and Traits, the paragraph on dominant and recessive alleles. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  115. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 3.4 Proteins, the paragraph on the gene encoding a protein. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  116. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 3.4 Proteins, the paragraph on protein shape and denaturation. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  117. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors, the paragraph on internal receptors. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  118. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors, the paragraph on internal receptors, closing sentence. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  119. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption, the paragraph on the goal of digestion. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  120. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption, the paragraph on water-soluble nutrients. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  121. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption, the paragraph on lipid-soluble nutrients. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  122. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the opening paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  123. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the paragraph introducing the liver. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  124. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the paragraph introducing the liver, closing sentence. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  125. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the paragraph on hepatic portal circulation. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  126. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the same paragraph, on what arrives with the nutrients. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  127. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the paragraph on bile. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  128. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the paragraph on what emulsification does. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  129. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 23.6 Accessory Organs in Digestion, the paragraph on the pancreatic islets. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  130. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the opening paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  131. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the alpha cell paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  132. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the alpha cell paragraph, on what triggers glucagon. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  133. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the beta cell paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  134. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the beta cell paragraph, on what triggers insulin. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  135. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on sensing blood glucose. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  136. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on glucose as fuel, on where spare glucose goes. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  137. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on what insulin does. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  138. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on how insulin works. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  139. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on which cells lack insulin receptors. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  140. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the same paragraph, on which cells insulin acts on most. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  141. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on insulin and the liver. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  142. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the same paragraph, on what else insulin promotes. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  143. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the same paragraph, on feedback. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  144. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the list of glucagon’s effects. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  145. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the list of glucagon’s effects, second effect. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  146. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the list of glucagon’s effects, third effect. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  147. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph closing the glucagon list. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  148. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph closing the glucagon list, on feedback. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  149. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.9 The Endocrine Pancreas, the paragraph on glucose as fuel. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  150. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 24.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism, the paragraph on why the body makes new glucose. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  151. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the paragraph on chemical signalling. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  152. Clark, Mary Ann and Douglas, Matthew and Choi, Jung. Biology 2e. 2018. section 9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors, the paragraph on endocrine signals. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  153. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the same paragraph, on how hormones travel. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  154. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the paragraph on specificity. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  155. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the paragraph on chemical signalling, on how long it takes. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  156. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the paragraph on endocrine glands. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  157. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the paragraph contrasting endocrine and exocrine glands. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).
  158. Betts, J. Gordon and Young, Kelly A. and Wise, James A. and Johnson, Eddie and Poe, Brandon and Kruse, Dean H. and Korol, Oksana and Johnson, Jody E. and Womble, Mark and DeSaix, Peter. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. 2022. section 17.1 An Overview of the Endocrine System, the same paragraph, on tissues with endocrine function. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e (accessed 2026-09-23).

Part F · Reading and reasoning

F1 Reading a table

F2 Reading a figure, and the ways a figure misleads

F3 Checking a reference

F4 Argument: premise, inference, conclusion

F5 How government works, in the shape you need to read a regulation

References · Part F 28
  1. A textbook chapter on tabular presentation of data. Outstanding — see the note below.
  2. Kirk, Donna and others. Contemporary Mathematics. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.8.2 Visualizing Data, subsection Misleading Graphs, opening paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/8-2-visualizing-data.
  3. Kirk, Donna and others. Contemporary Mathematics. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.8.2 Visualizing Data, subsection Bar Charts, opening paragraph. https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/8-2-visualizing-data.
  4. Kirk, Donna and others. Contemporary Mathematics. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.8.2 Visualizing Data, subsection Misleading Graphs, Step 3. https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/8-2-visualizing-data.
  5. Kirk, Donna and others. Contemporary Mathematics. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.8.2 Visualizing Data, subsection Misleading Graphs, Step 4. https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/8-2-visualizing-data.
  6. Kirk, Donna and others. Contemporary Mathematics. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.8.2 Visualizing Data, subsection Misleading Graphs, Step 7. https://openstax.org/books/contemporary-mathematics/pages/8-2-visualizing-data.
  7. Holmes, Alexander and Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan. Introductory Business Statistics 2e. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.2.1 Display Data, subsection How NOT to Lie with Statistics, paragraph on histograms. https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e/pages/2-1-display-data.
  8. Holmes, Alexander and Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan. Introductory Business Statistics 2e. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.2.1 Display Data, subsection How NOT to Lie with Statistics, paragraph on time series graphs. https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e/pages/2-1-display-data.
  9. Holmes, Alexander and Illowsky, Barbara and Dean, Susan. Introductory Business Statistics 2e. Openly licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. s.2.1 Display Data, subsection How NOT to Lie with Statistics, paragraph on pie charts. https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e/pages/2-1-display-data.
  10. Government of India. The National Food Security Act, 2013. Act 20 of 2013. figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/496105 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  11. A textbook chapter on citation and source verification. Outstanding — see the note below.
  12. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Article 279A(1). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  13. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Article 279A(4)(e). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  14. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Article 279A, footnote 1. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  15. An introductory textbook chapter on argument structure. Outstanding — see the note below.
  16. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Articles 32, 53, 79, 226, 245 and 246. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  17. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Article 368(2). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  18. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Article 368(2), proviso, clause (c). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  19. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. Article 368(2), proviso. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  20. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 4(1). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  21. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 23(1). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  22. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 92(1). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  23. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 93. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  24. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 3(1)(zj). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  25. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 3(1)(zg). India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  26. Government of India. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. Act 34 of 2006. Consulted at ss. 91-93 (power to make rules and regulations; laying before Parliament). section 3(1)(j), proviso. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/586348 (accessed 2026-09-19).
  27. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. Food Safety and Standards (Labelling and Display) Regulations, 2020. 2020. regulation 5(3)(b). FSSAI. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Comp_Labelling%20Display_Version%20VIII_09_09_2025.pdf (accessed 2026-09-22).
  28. Government of India. The Constitution of India. 2026. figures quoted in the text. India Code. https://indiacode.gov.in/handle/123456789/618394 (accessed 2026-09-19).

An entry marked outstanding has not yet been checked against the source itself. Nothing in these sections rests on one: the reasoning is a derivation you can check with a calculator, and the entry records an anchor still to be supplied.